Wednesday, January 29, 2020
Measurement Theory And The Foundations Of Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free
Measurement Theory And The Foundations Of Utilitarianism Essay Utilitarianism Introduction            There are several theories which have been put forward by scientists to explain the actions of human beings and why people tend to behave in certain ways. One of the theories which have been put forward is the theory of utilitarianism (Weymark, 527-55). Utilitarianism is an ethical theory put forward by John Stuart Mill whereby he supports the value of utilitarianism in the society. Utilitarianism as describe by Mill is that it is a moral theory that is primarily based on the principle or view that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Mill, 8). Happiness which originates from the actions undertaken by an individual is defined as the â€Å"absence of pain.†           Furthermore, according to Mills, there is difference in pleasure in terms of the quality as well as the quantity of pleasure that an individual may experience. Higher faculties, as observed by Mill, provide greater pleasure as compared to pleasure from baser faculties (Burgess-Jackson, 529-47). Furthermore, Mill observed that the achievement of goals by people as well as ends such as good lifestyle is often counted as part of the happiness that those people enjoy (Mill, 8).            In addition, utilitarianism is considered as the principle of the Greatest Happiness whereby any actions that an individual undertakes are considered to be right as long as they generate proportional happiness to the individual (Mill, 8). If the actions by an individual instead of promoting happiness result in the opposite, that is pain, then the actions are deemed to be wrong. Human beings perform different actions with an aim of generating satisfaction which in turn generates happiness. For example, when an individual takes up a job, the person expects to be paid for the work done and the payment received in turn helps the person to live a comfortable life (Mill, 8). Therefore, the action of working is right since the end result is good life for the person which means happiness. If the action of obtaining employment does not generate benefit but instead suffering for the person, then the action of being employed is considered as wrong be cause the end result will be pain and suffering for the person.            The consequence of the actions that one undertakes is of great importance and is what matters under utilitarianism unlike the action itself (Weymark, 527-55). Any action, event, circumstance or even an experience is desirable for human beings if the final or end result or consequence is that it will lead to happiness (Mill, 8). Another example is in marriage. People get married since the end result of being in a marriage is considered to be happiness and therefore marriage within any given society is considered as a good action and always celebrated (Woodard, 246-65). On the other hand, death is an event in the life of human beings but the end result of it is pain to the people that are bereaved which mean that the act of dying is wrong under the utilitarianism theory.            I find that this theory of utilitarianism is very much applicable and makes a lot of sense in terms of helping us understand why people will take some actions and yet at some point there are people that may view the action as wrong (Burgess-Jackson, 357-85). Under utilitarianism, the action is only wrong if it results in pain and suffering and reduces the level of happiness but it is right if the end result is happiness and if it increases happiness. We are often faced with choices in life and what actions we are supposed to take.            From personal experience, I have always made decisions and undertook actions as a result of the end result that I will obtain. If the end result of a certain action that I am supposed to take is going to affect me negatively, I often forego the action and look for alternative. For example, I realized that if I decided to go to school and study, I will be able to get a good job and live a good life, which meant I will be happy with myself. If I choose to take on actions such as drug trafficking, I may get arrested and spend all my life in prison which will pain and suffering hence reducing my happiness (Weymark, 527-55). Based on the utilitarianism theory, I chose the action of going to school as the end results will help increase the level of happiness in my life unlike the other action of drug dealing.            Furthermore, this theory makes sense as it natural supports the sentiments of human beings which is found in their social nature. Human beings, we are social and always seek for happiness in all actions ad relationships that we build (Mill, 8). A woman would love a certain man and not another man because she perceives happiness with that person. According to Mill, a view which I fully support and makes sense is that, happiness is the only thing that people want in life and all the emotions, actions and activities that people go through or undertake are often directed at achieving happiness.            No one in this world wants to live a life of suffering and pain but all seek for happiness. I agree to this view based on an example of a sick man. When one is sick, and feels pain in the body, they cannot stay like that and just wait to die. Instead, people always seek the help of a doctor so that they can recover from the pain and enjoy the happiness of being healthy again (Weymark, 527-55). The action of going to a doctor for treatment is aimed at attaining happiness as the end result. Therefore, happiness is the center of human life and all issues in the life of an individual are directed towards achieving happiness, often with the benefit to the majority in mind.            Compared to utilitarianism, ethical egoism opposes by suggesting that people should be more self-centered and only undertake actions which will benefit them more despite the outcome ton the majority. Self-interest is the primary concern before the interest of other people under utilitarianism (Dougherty, 527-37). On the other hand, deontology is based on the rule or rules that guide the actions of an individual. However, despite morality based on rules, the element of happiness is not considered and hence no benefit to an individual (Dougherty, 527-37). It is more concerned with the actions of an individual rather than the consequences of those actions. An action can be considered as ethically wrong based on the rule despite having greater benefit to an individual and the society at large (Dougherty, 527-37). This is completely ion contrast to utilitarianism which is based on the consequences. Therefore, from the comparison of the three et hical theories, I would stand by utilitarianism since it looks after the interest of everyone, that is, the individual and the society at large. References Burgess-Jackson, Keith. Deontological Egoism. Social Theory Practice 29.3 (2003): 357-385. Academic Search Premier. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. Burgess-Jackson, Keith. Taking Egoism Seriously. Ethical Theory Moral Practice 16.3 (2013): 529-542. Academic Search Premier. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. Dougherty, Tom. Agent-Neutral Deontology. Philosophical Studies 163.2 (2013): 527-537. Academic Search Premier. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. Mill, John S. Utilitarianism. London: Longmans, Green, 1879. Print. P.8 Weymark, John A. Measurement Theory And The Foundations Of Utilitarianism. Social Choice Welfare 25.2/3 (2005): 527-555. Business Source Complete. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. Woodard, Christopher. The Common Structure Of Kantianism And Act-Utilitarianism. Utilitas 25.2 (2013): 246-265. Academic Search Premier. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. Source document
Tuesday, January 21, 2020
Eating Disorders - Body Image in the Media Essay -- Argumentative Pers
Body Image in the Media      Plato once said, "We behold beauty in the eye of the mind...." What some people consider beauty others may not. From the actresses that are shown on television, movies, models that are in magazines, and the pop stars that create hip and modern music videos, one could be under the impression that to be beautiful you must thin. Actresses such as Jennifer Aniston, Sarah Michelle Gheller, Clarista Flockheart, Courtney Cox and Debra Messing all have staring roles in their own television shows and are all extremely thin. The audiences of these shows being mostly women and adolescent girls, what kind of message about body image are they sending out?  The stars of Hollywood are considered to be the most beautiful and elegant in the world. A vast majority of the population wants to have their bodies resemble those of the stars. These women and girls will go to extreme lengths have this happen. What these women don't understand is, these actresses have professionals to help them look "beautiful." They have professional hair and makeup artists, fashion experts to help them dress, and lighting experts to make the women glow on the screen. These actresses and models will go through painful plastic surgeries to enhance their "beauty" because they feel as though they are not beautiful enough. "Fashion magazines are filled with air brushed photos of emaciated models with breast implants" (Schneider, Shelly 2). Not even famous actresses feel as though they are beautiful enough. "I have never worked with a beautiful young woman who thought she was A) beautiful or B) thin enough." (Schumacher 1) This director, Joel Schumacher, has worked wit h actresses like Demi Moore, Julia Roberts and Sandra Bullock. ... ...the women who aren't on television really do have it easier. Women who are not in the spotlight don't have to worry about thousands to millions of people looking and analyzing them. Women who are not in the spotlight do not having people telling them they are over weight or not pretty enough to be televised. All females should appreciate each other for the special features that each of us possesses. If we could focus on the positive instead of the negative maybe we could go help the problem of people having low self-esteem and body issues.  Work Cited "Children, Adolescents, and Television." Pediatrics. 107. (2001): 423-427 Erokan, Laney. "Negative Body Image Influences Eating Disorders." Lycos Network. 30 Aug. 2000. <http://www.studentadvantage.lycos.com> Schenider, Karen S. Shelley Levitt. "Mission Impossible." People. 3 June 1996. : 64-73
Monday, January 13, 2020
What Was the Cause for Segregation in the South?
Lemar Griffin Reconstruction April 28, 2011 Professor Eisenberg What was the cause for segregation in the south? The Day Freedom Died and When did Southern Segregation Begin are two books that cover events that happened during the Reconstruction period. Charles Lane through his political and social analysis shines an illuminating light on one of America's more sordid events. The Colfax Massacre gained national attention so much that the event is now an interracial group that commemorates an event.John David Smith the author of When did Southern Segregation Begin takes a straight forward approach in his book and explains multiple reasons for why this may have occurred. People often assume that segregation was a natural outcome of Reconstruction which can seem somewhat believable depending on your knowledge of the subject. But in all actuality scholars cannot agree on which events at the end of the nineteenth century mark the beginning of formalized Jim Crow. Studies show how blacks an d whites learned to be civilized when they encountered each other.The division of the two races happens soon after the end of the Civil War. This essay will attempt to analyze when southern segregation begin. Following the Civil War, Colfax, Louisiana, was a town, like many, where Negroes and whites mingled uneasily. But on April 13, 1873, a small army of white ex-Confederate soldiers, enraged after attempts by freedmen to assert their new rights, killed more than sixty Negroes who had occupied a courthouse. There were barely armed former slaves that were knifed, burned, smoked out of a courthouse, and gunned down by a white posse angry over an 1872 Republican election victory. the Ku Klux Klan declared. Its goals were â€Å"to protect the weak, innocent and defenseless,†and â€Å"to protect the constitution on the Untied States. [1] The United States passed the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, putting an end to almost 250 years of slavery. Following the Civil War, Colfax, Lou isiana, was a town like many where African Americans and whites mingled uneasily. When you look back at the events that unfolded in many towns like Colfax, Louisiana you start asking yourself: â€Å"What was the reason for all this. Throughout the year we learned more as a class why whites did horrible things to blacks, and about why Reconstruction is important to our America history. I feel that this goes back to a text we read earlier by Howard Fast in his book Freedom Road. The hypothesis that I have came up with is from a scene in Fast’s book. I believe that to some extent whites were afraid of blacks becoming independent and educated. I feel this way because I believe that money and power are two of the most important things in America, in my opinion. To gain money and power you must have the skill set to enable yourself to do so.This comes with knowledge, meaning that you would have to be very well educated to put yourself in a position to acquire power. Having knowled ge is one of the most powerful weapons you can have as a human, and the somewhat educated blacks were aware of this. I have this idea because of the fact that from taking this class I’ve been doing a lot of thinking about why slavery lasted so long and have the whites kept the blacks in control of such a long period of time without losing control of everything. That brings me to power, education, and money. Back in the day White was making a very good amount of money from slavery.If you look at slavery in the context I am for my hypothesis it will make more sense. I’m looking at slavery from a business aspect. If you dehumanize blacks and block out the fact that you’re hurting people, and that it is morally wrong to enslave people then you have what I call a â€Å"unethical business. †When whites feared that blacks could learn how to read and write it would scare them because is all blacks were able to read and write then they would have the knowledge th ey needed to realize that with the right plan and the will power and motivation that they could free themselves from slavery.I feel this way because from all the books we have covered in class I started to notice a pattern. It was starting to come more clearly to me after every book we finished in class. Education is important in the forthcoming of Reconstruction; the same also is true for knowledge. Changes were made by black people that were educated or people that have enough knowledge to understand the situation and see the way to fix it. Money is key factors in many choices many people in this country base their decisions off, morally and ethically.With money come the number one thing that all counties want let alone just individuals, power. With the right person in power everything thing can be either perfect for a certain group of people, as well as with the wrong person in power everything can be horrible for a certain group of people. To sum up my hypothesis if blacks would have had the chance to become educated then the world would be a totally different place, in my opinion. This separation of blacks and whites took without a doubt took time and a lot of effort by white southerners to make sure that it all went according to plan.This begins to happen soon after the end of the Civil War. The churches and schools were the main places and probably some of the first places to be spilt. During the time, neither place was to be segregated by law. Both places became segregated by the choice of the public. This is an early example of how the blacks separated themselves from the whites to start to own life as free people. The black communities were all against any law that would be restricting them from everyday rights and everyday conveniences that they felt they were entitled to as humans.However, many whites also were not satisfied with the thought of Jim Crow Law. These laws were unlike the black codes which had been done away with ten years earlier. The Jim Crow laws brought segregation to public schools, public places, and public transportation. It also separated restrooms, restaurants, and drinking fountains from blacks and whites. The U. S. military was also segregated. For more than 200 years before the Civil War, slavery existed in the United States. But after the war things began to get worse for blacks.The south thought they needed to do something. The Southern legislatures, former confederates, passed laws known as the black codes, after the war, which severely limited the rights of blacks and segregated them from whites. The south gradually reinstated the racially discriminatory laws. The two main goals they wanted these laws to achieve: disenfranchisement and segregation. To take away the power that the blacks had gained, the Democratic Party began to stop Blacks from voting. There were many ways to stop blacks from voting.Some of these things were poll taxes, fees were charged at voting booths and were expensive for mos t blacks, and the literacy test. Since teaching blacks were illegal, most adult blacks were former slaves and illiterate. â€Å"A favorite ploy was to change the registration site without notifying colored voters; some registrars demanded that elderly Negros prove that they were over twenty years old, not easy for those who had no birth certificates because they were born into slavery. †[2] This was something that was common back when the blacks would go and try to vote to make a change. Registered colored voters outnumbered whites 776 to 630 in Grant Parish. †[3] The white were doing everything in their power to cheat and make sure that the blacks did not win anything that they had put their vote in for. Voting is a powerful tool which goes back to my hypothesis about how power is important in America. They have said that this still goes on in America the power of the votes are suppose to be in the hands of American people but sometimes the polls don’t reflect o n what who really went out and cast their vote on election day.The power to change things that normal people have no control over is something that has been going on for a long time now in America. â€â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [1] Charles Lane, The Day Freedom Died, (New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, LCC, 2008) Pg. 3 [2] Charles Lane, The Day Freedom Died, (New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, LCC, 2008) Pg. 65 [3] Charles Lane, The Day Freedom Died, (New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, LCC, 2008) Pg. 66
Saturday, January 4, 2020
The Shock of the novel The Lottery by Shirley Jackson Essay
The Shock of the novel The Lottery by Shirley Jackson The first time I read â€Å"The Lottery†by Shirley Jackson, I thought it would be about someone in a desperate situation who wins a large amount of money. However, after reading the story I was shocked and disgusted like millions of other readers because of what the â€Å"lottery†was all about. After my shock wore off I thought about why the author had chosen to be so cynical. It occurred to me that she needed to shock people into changing for the better. She believed that the biggest problem in her society were the people who would live their lives without thinking about changing themselves for the better. She stresses the importance of questioning the validity of everything as opposed to†¦show more content†¦He never explains why they are crazy, but never-the-less he believes it. Old Man Warner represents the opinion of the majority, and he also symbolizes the mentality of modern American society as well. The author uses him to represent the type of people that are so set in their ways that they refuse to consider or even acknowledge the other point of view. What is worse is that they don’t even feel remorse when they really â€Å"see†that what they’d believed was awfully wrong. The other obvious person to speak out against the lottery is Mrs. Hutchinson. As soon as her family was chosen, she became hysterical and only then did she speak up against the idea. However, at that time the people in the community were so relieved that their own families weren’t the ones that were chosen, they wouldn’t have listened to her anyway. We clearly see this when Mrs. Delacroix replies to Mrs. Hutchinson’s hysterics with,†be a good sport, Tessie.†Be a good sport? This clearly shows how they are so brainwashed by their culture and society that they can’t even feel sorry for Mrs. Hutchinson before she will be viciously stoned to death! In this story Mrs. Hutchinson and Mr. and Mrs. Adams represent the select few from their society who are willing to speak out against the dominant opinion. They are the voice of reason amidst the chaos of blind obedience. And because of them and people like them, hopefully some day the people will realizeShow MoreRelatedThe Lottery, By Shirley Jackson2116 Words  | 9 PagesShirley Jackson was a master of modern gothic fiction and wrote of the essentially evil nature of human beings. The major focus of her work is to emphasize the psychological dimension of experience and the absolute isolation of a human. Shirley Jackson also believes and suggests that humanity must continue to try to define its own reality, and strive to survive with nobility. 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